The Influence of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on Scientists in Japan
Shoji Sawada 
At 8:15 am on August 6, 1945, a uranium bomb exploded over the city of Hiroshima. In an instant, huge amounts of gamma rays turned the air into a fireball, ripping apart the beautiful summer sky. The heat from the fireball burned people alive, turning many instantly into ash. The expanding fireball produced a shock wave which, along with the initial blast, leveled buildings, and burnt alive those trapped inside. Those lucky enough to escape could do little but run, their burned flesh hanging from their bodies like rags. Those who survived soon suffered hair loss, diarrhea, and internal bleeding due to the effects of the initial radiation and of fallout. Later, survivors suffered from other health effects, including leukemia, liver ailments, cataracts, and various types of cancer. And at 11:02 am on August 9, a plutonium bomb detonated over the city of Nagasaki and caused the same kind of disaster.
Scientists in the Aftermath of the A-Bombing
There were many scientists in Hiroshima and Nagasaki when the bombs were dropped. Many of them suffered burns, injuries, and the effects of radiation. They too lost family, friends, and colleagues, and were appalled by the destruction. They noted what science had created. Many of them, as experts in their field, or as individuals, later became the leaders of Japan's nation-wide movement against A & H bombs and of bomb survivors (hibakusha).
When the bombs were dropped, Japan was under militarist rule based on the Emperor system, and scientists could not openly express opinions about the damage caused by the use of atomic bombs. However, scientists who were physically able, despite injuries suffered in the bombings, engaged in damage research, measured radiation levels, and conducted pathology surveys.
The Japanese Government and military sent scientists to Hiroshima to determine whether the bomb that was used was an atomic bomb. Dr. Yoshio Nishina, a physicist from the Physics and Chemistry Laboratory, was one of those scientists. The Army and the Navy also formed a research team of scientists, doctors, and experts from various universities. Researchers were sent to Nagasaki as well. Based on the results of these surveys, the Japanese government protested to the United States that the use of the atomic bomb was against international law. But the government did not inform the Japanese people of the terrible damage caused by the A-bomb, simply calling it a "new type of bomb." The government was concerned that the truth would cause the people to lose their fighting spirit. Scientists continued their research on the bombs' effects after it was confirmed as an atomic bomb. They continued the research after the surrender of Japan, even though it was difficult for them both mentally and physically.
As the US occupation reached high gear, the General Headquarters of the occupation army (GHQ) ordered the Japanese Government to co-operate with the Manhattan District Research Team and to turn over all results of A-bomb damage research done before the occupation. Because GHQ was concerned about international reaction to the use of such a bomb, they imposed censorship of the press and all other publications. These restrictions ended in 1952 with the end of the occupation. Consequently, the limited research activities gradually stagnated.
Research on the A-bomb victims by groups of medical doctors and scientists continued at the local level. However, at the NGO's International Symposium on the Damage and After-Effects of the Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1977, a full-scale international scientific program was proposed. The symposium was attended by Japanese and foreign scientists, most of them physicists or experts on radiation biology, as well as experts from the humanities and social sciences. This symposium brought together many scientists and additional experts not involved in the movement against nuclear weapons who joined the efforts to study the damage caused by the bomb.
The Role of the Constitution of Japan and the Science Council of Japan
Japan's military was disarmed in accordance with the Potsdam Declaration. Article 9 of the newly enacted Japanese Constitution clearly declared Japan's demilitarization:
"Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes.
(2) In order to accomplish the aim of the preceding paragraph, land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained. The right of belligerency of the state will not be recognized."
The new constitution received widespread support from the Japanese people, who had experienced the horror of Japan's war of aggression. Having experienced the terrible effects of atomic bombs, even those scientists who had cooperated with military research during the war realized that using scientific achievements for war had resulted in catastrophe. In particular, they knew that atomic weapons were created as result of scientific 'progress,' and were seen as necessary to deter the Nazis from developing their own atomic bomb. But they became weapons of genocide once they left the hands of the scientists. They were weapons of mass destruction to be used to control the world. It was then that scientists recognized their social responsibility.
During the war, academic freedom was taken away from Japanese scientists. They were unable to stop the war of aggression. This viewpoint is reflected in the Science Council of Japan (SCJ), which was established as a united body of Japanese scientists. Members are elected by scientists all over the country. At the inauguration ceremony in January 1949, the SCJ made the following announcement: "We shall make the utmost efforts to contribute to academic progress for world peace, joining hand in hand with the international academic society."
At the second general assembly of the SCJ, Dr. Yoshio Nishina, Vice President of the SCJ, who had worked for the development of the atomic bomb during the war at the request of the army, proposed the following statement: "The Science Council of Japan longs for peace. We scientists have witnessed the horror of atomic bombing, and considering the present circumstances, we request the establishment of effective international control over atomic energy." The motion was adopted unanimously.
In April 1950, at the sixth general assembly, the SCJ made the following statement, which has become the norm among Japanese scientists: "As a creator of Japan's culture, and as an apostle for world peace, we wish never to see war again. We express our firm determination not to engage in any science research for military purposes. We shall work together to achieve our previous statement. We shall keep our principles."
In 1952, the San Francisco Peace Treaty went into effect, and restrictions on atomic energy research were removed. Scientists in Japan debated if they should move to start research into atomic energy for peaceful purposes. The SCJ discussed this issue and it was suggested that a research group be set up under government auspices.
Dr. Yasutaka Mimura, a professor at Hiroshima University, stated his strong opposition to this idea at a general assembly. He himself was a survivor of the atomic bombing, and said that such a government institution could be very well turned into an "Atomic Energy Commission" like that in the United States, which could easily be used by politicians in preparation for future wars. He insisted that the SCJ should not make such a suggestion to the government until the tension between the Soviet Union and the United States was reduced.
At that time, in response to a request from the US, the Japanese Government made moves to form the Self Defense Forces (SDF), despite the prohibition on military forces in Article 9 of Japan's Constitution, saying they would be only for "self-defense." There was increasing pressure from the government to mute criticism of the SDF by scientists. At the same time, the government also was planning to establish a new organization called the "Science & Technology Agency." Scientific research would be controlled by the agency as a part of a government initiative. Dr. Shoichi Sakata, a young theoretical physicist at that time, supported Dr. Mimura, and said, "if such an agency were established and received a much bigger budget, the independence of academia would be compromised."
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 Atomic Bomb Dome in Hiroshima |
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In March 1954, straight out of the blue, the Parliament appropriated 235 million yen for the construction of nuclear reactors. Faced with this new reality, the SCJ put forward three principles for peaceful atomic energy research: "public awareness, democracy, and autonomy." These principles were included in the Atomic Energy Basic Law in 1955, and have been broadly supported by scientists as a matter of common sense. However, since then, Japan's nuclear energy development has been conducted in accordance with the Japan-US Atomic Agreement, which has developed in close association with the enriched uranium production programs of the US nuclear weapons industry.
Even now, Japan faces many unresolved technical problems in its nuclear energy development. Safety remains a major concern. Japan, with its high population density, is prone to earthquakes. We do not yet know-how to handle plutonium safely, or how to deal effectively with radioactive waste. In light of the actual history of nuclear energy development in Japan, we see the 'three principles' as being ignored.
The Bikini Hydrogen Bomb Test and Scientists
The US conducted a hydrogen bomb test at Bikini Atoll on March 1, 1954, which shocked the people of Japan. This event helped to spark the nation-wide movement against A & H bombs, the first grassroots movement of its kind in Japan. The development of the hydrogen bomb was the cause of much concern among Japanese scientists. They realized the real possibility of the extinction of all life on earth.
Scientists from various fields, including those who had conducted surveys of the damage in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, became actively involved in research on the radioactive contamination caused by the Bikini test. Radiation specialists and those involved in marine biology also played a part by conducting their own research. They soon learned that contamination of the sea by radioactive fallout was more widespread than they had expected.
These findings played a major role in the creation of Japan's first-ever grassroots movement, with the 1st World Conference against A & H Bombs being held in Hiroshima in August 1955. Many scientists contributed to its success. The conference adopted a resolution which confirmed the three basic aims of the anti-nuclear movement: the prevention of nuclear war, the total elimination of nuclear weapons, and solidarity and assistance for the hibakusha. These three basic aims formed the foundation of the Japanese peace movement and have been consistently affirmed.
Cooperation with natural, human, and social scientists also helped to establish the basic aims of the peace movement in Japan. Scientists worked with people from other disciplines and shared their expertise with them and the larger movement. And meanwhile, scientists themselves learned from those in other sectors of society, trade unions for example, gaining a broader perspective from people outside their own fields.
Pugwash and the Kyoto Conference of Scientists
It is said that Dr. Hideki Yukawa, winner of the Nobel Prize in physics, had many discussions with Albert Einstein on the subject of atomic weapons while studying at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton. Einstein's main theme was "avoiding a world catastrophe must be a top priority", which was considered the "new morality" in the atomic age. He called it "Einstein's Principle."
Einstein was informed of the results of Japanese scientists' research on radioactive fallout from the H-bomb tests at Bikini Atoll. The Russell-Einstein Manifesto published in 1955 was regarded as a call to the world and world scientists on the dangers nuclear weapons presented for the future of all life on earth. This was reinforced by the extent of the radioactive fallout at Bikini. It was significant for Dr. Yukawa to have signed the Russell-Einstein Manifesto to show his support. Japanese scientists welcomed the Manifesto with great enthusiasm.
In response to the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, a conference of scientists was held in July 1957. Three Japanese physicists, Dr. Hideki Yukawa, Dr. Sin-itiro Tomonaga and Dr. Iwao Ogawa, took part in the first of what came to be known as the Pugwash Conferences. On their return to Japan, together with Dr. Shoichi Sakata, they set up the Kyoto Conference of Scientists, a Japanese version of the Pugwash Conference. The Kyoto Conferences pursued a broader agenda, including more co-operation with academics in the social sciences and humanities, as well as writers and journalists. In the early days, the Pugwash Conferences consisted mainly of physicists. At the Kyoto Scientists Conferences, there was much criticism of nuclear deterrence theory and of the Japanese Government's subordinate attitude towards the US, together with an affirmation of the commitment to peace embodied in the Japanese Constitution.
In 1975, a Pugwash Symposium was held in Japan for the first time. Dr. Hideki Yukawa, suffering from prostate cancer, left the hospital in a wheel chair and made the opening speech of the symposium. In that speech, he appealed to Pugwash to go back to the basics of the Russell-Einstein Manifesto. Dr. Tomonaga made a convincing argument that the nuclear arms race would go on without end as long as nuclear deterrence theory was followed. At Dr. Tomonaga's suggestion, the participants watched a film on the Effects of the Atomic Bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for five hours over two nights. The film, which had been brought from the US and had never been seen in Japan before, had a big effect on those who saw it; many changed their position after seeing this film. These efforts by Japanese scientists, however, had little immediate influence on Pugwash.
Pugwash held its first annual meeting in Japan in Hiroshima, on the 50th anniversaries of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The scientists who attended were all invited to visit the Hiroshima A-Bomb Museum, and were asked later for their impressions. In a statement they said: "We thought we had a rather powerful imagination, but the exhibits we saw went way beyond imagination. We have always had discussions about what happened in the atmosphere, but the photos and exhibits we saw showed the true picture of what happened on the ground." The Pugwash Council later issued a statement critical of nuclear deterrence. Pugwash, and its then-President, Joseph Rotblat, were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1995. Pugwash has embraced the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, the main aims of which are the abolition of nuclear weapons and an end to all war.
Creating a New Generation of Critical Scientists
In Japan, many scientists continue to work with the movement for the elimination of nuclear weapons. They have held an annual scientists' forum against nuclear weapons and a meeting to share research on the problems of the hibakusha, many of whom continue to suffer the effects of atomic bomb radiation even now. Few younger scientists, however, participate in activities of this kind. How can we pass our work down to the next generation, who must take responsibility for the future? This question must be addressed.
In Japan in the 1980s, there were movements to declare Japan nuclear free or to adopt peace charters in many universities and other institutions. One such effort was the Nagoya University Peace Charter, issued in February 1987, after more than three years discussion among professors, graduate, and undergraduate students at the university.
We could not stop the US attack on Iraq, a war that demonstrated that the US "pre-emption" doctrine was more than mere policy. Now the Japanese government is under strong pressure from the United States to change Article 9 of the Constitution of Japan. But we still have hope and we will continue to work with movements around the world. The war has aroused a strong response from young people world-wide. More than 60% those attending the World Conference against A & H Bombs this year, which usually sees more than 10,000 participants, were young people under thirty. So today, the voices which demand that the nuclear weapons states "implement the unequivocal undertaking to abolish nuclear weapons," call for "no war" and to "keep the rules of peace," have been spreading amongst young people, and likely young scientists, as well.
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